Bhakti and Religious Movements (South India, Maharashtra)

The Idea Of A Supreme God (Bhakti Intro)

In the medieval period in India, a significant religious movement known as the Bhakti movement gained prominence. The central idea of the Bhakti movement was the concept of a Supreme God or a personal deity to whom one could show loving devotion (Bhakti) as the primary path to spiritual liberation.

This idea was not entirely new, as devotional hymns existed in earlier traditions (like the Bhagavad Gita). However, the Bhakti movement broadened and popularised the concept of personal devotion across wider sections of society.

It offered a path to salvation that was accessible to everyone, regardless of their caste, social status, or gender.
Unlike elaborate Vedic rituals which required priests and specific knowledge, Bhakti emphasised a direct, personal relationship with God.

The Bhakti movement took various forms in different regions of India and involved numerous saints who composed hymns, preached, and inspired followers.

Poems Of Prayer Early Traditions Of Bhakti (Intro)

The roots of the Bhakti idea can be traced to earlier religious traditions and texts. The Rigveda contains hymns in praise of deities, and later texts like the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita explored philosophical and devotional aspects.

Early Forms of Devotion:

Even in the Vedic period, there were hymns dedicated to various deities, which can be seen as early forms of prayer and devotion.
Texts like the Bhagavad Gita, part of the Mahabharata (compiled later than the Rigveda), extensively discuss the concept of Bhakti, particularly devotion to Lord Krishna, as a way to achieve liberation.

However, the Bhakti movement that flourished from the medieval period onwards was distinct in its emphasis on intense personal devotion, often directed towards specific deities like Vishnu (in his various forms), Shiva, and different goddesses, and its widespread appeal across social strata.

Spread and Popularity:

The idea of a Supreme God to whom one could be devoted gained popularity in the medieval period, resonating with people who found the existing rituals and caste system restrictive.
This led to the rise of various Bhakti traditions and saints across different regions of India.

The Bhakti movement was a complex phenomenon with diverse expressions, but the central theme of loving devotion to a personal deity remained constant.

A New Kind Of Bhakti In South India – Nayanars And Alvars

The Bhakti movement in South India, particularly in the Tamil region, saw the emergence of two prominent groups of poet-saints: the Nayanars and the Alvars. They represent an early and vibrant phase of the medieval Bhakti tradition.

Nayanars:

The Nayanars were devotees of Lord Shiva.
There were 63 Nayanar saints, who came from diverse social backgrounds, including peasants, artisans, and even those considered 'untouchable'.
They composed passionate devotional hymns in Tamil, expressing their intense love and devotion for Shiva.
Their compositions were later compiled into a collection called the Tevaram.

Alvars:

The Alvars were devotees of Lord Vishnu (or his incarnations like Krishna and Rama).
There were 12 Alvar saints, who also came from varied social backgrounds, including Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and those from castes traditionally considered 'untouchable'.
They composed devotional hymns in Tamil, expressing their deep devotion for Vishnu.
Their compositions were later compiled into a collection called the Naalayira Divyaprabandham.

*(Image shows an illustration or depiction related to Nayanar or Alvar saints, or a prominent temple associated with Shiva or Vishnu in South India)*

Significance of Nayanars and Alvars:

They promoted devotional worship as a primary religious practice, making it accessible to all.
They used Tamil language for their compositions, which helped in popularising religious ideas among the common people, unlike Sanskrit which was mainly used by the Brahmins.
Their inclusive approach, drawing followers and saints from diverse social backgrounds, challenged the rigid caste hierarchy.
Their hymns and teachings were influential in the spread of Bhakti in South India and later influenced Bhakti traditions in other parts of the subcontinent.
Their movement was supported by local rulers (e.g., Pallavas, Cholas), who built temples for the deities praised by these saints.

The Nayanars and Alvars represent a vibrant phase of the Bhakti movement in South India, characterised by passionate devotional poetry in the regional language and a relatively inclusive approach to social differences.

Philosophy And Bhakti

While the Bhakti movement emphasised devotion and personal experience, it also interacted with existing philosophical traditions of India. Various scholar-saints combined philosophical concepts with Bhakti to provide a deeper intellectual basis for devotional practices.

Philosopher-Saints:

Notable philosopher-saints from South India who combined philosophy with Bhakti include:
- Shankara (late 8th century CE): Advocated Advaita Vedanta (philosophy of non-duality), arguing that the ultimate reality (Brahman) is one and the individual soul (Atman) is not different from Brahman. He taught renunciation as the path to liberation and was critical of some aspects of rituals.
- Ramanuja (11th-12th century CE): Advocated Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-duality). He argued that the individual soul is distinct from Brahman but is a part of it. He emphasised Bhakti (devotion to Vishnu) as the primary means to achieve liberation.
These philosophers debated with each other and provided different interpretations of the relationship between the individual soul, God, and the universe, integrating these ideas within the framework of Bhakti.

The interaction between philosophy and Bhakti enriched both traditions. Philosophical systems provided intellectual frameworks for understanding the nature of God and the path to liberation, while Bhakti provided a personal, devotional, and experiential dimension to religious practice.

The Virashaiva Tradition In Karnataka

The Virashaiva tradition, also known as Lingayatism, emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century CE. It was a reformist movement that challenged the prevailing social and religious norms, particularly the caste system and certain rituals.

Key figure:

The movement was led by Basavanna (1106-1167 CE), a minister in the court of the Chalukya king.
His followers were known as Virashaivas ('heroes of Shiva') or Lingayats ('wearers of the Linga').

Teachings and Practices:

Central to the Virashaiva tradition is the worship of Shiva in the form of a Linga. Men usually wear a small Linga on their body.
They strongly challenged the authority of the Vedas and Brahmanical rituals.
They were critical of the caste system and treated all followers as equal. They opposed caste-based discrimination and promoted inter-caste marriage.
They questioned the theory of rebirth and karma, advocating that devotees would unite with Shiva after death.
They opposed practices like idol worship (in temples), fasting, pilgrimages, and funeral rites like cremation, preferring burial instead.
They composed poems called 'Vachanas' in Kannada, expressing their views and devotion.

Image of a Linga (symbol of Shiva) or a statue of Basavanna

*(Image shows a photograph of a Linga or a statue of Basavanna)*

The Virashaiva tradition was a powerful reformist movement in South India, advocating for social equality, challenging Brahmanical dominance and rituals, and promoting a direct, egalitarian form of devotion to Shiva. Their teachings and practices had a significant impact on the society and religious landscape of Karnataka.

The Saints Of Maharashtra

The Bhakti movement also flourished in Maharashtra from the 13th to 17th centuries. A number of prominent saints emerged in this region, whose teachings and hymns contributed to the devotional tradition and had a significant social impact.

Key Saints of Maharashtra:

Jnaneshwar (or Dnyaneshwar): (13th century) Authored the 'Jnaneshwari', a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Marathi. Emphasised devotion and attained Samadhi at a young age.
Namdev: (13th-14th century) A tailor by caste. His hymns are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. Emphasised devotion to Vitthala (a form of Vishnu).
Eknath: (16th century) Famous for his commentaries and devotional songs (abhangas). Challenged caste prejudices.
Tukaram: (17th century) A Varkari saint, contemporary of Shivaji Maharaj. His abhangas are very popular. Emphasised devotion to Vitthala and social equality.
Sakhu Bai, Janabai: Women saints whose devotional poems are also important.
Saints like Chokhamela belonged to the Mahar caste (considered 'untouchable') and expressed their devotion and also the pain of social discrimination in their hymns.

Features of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra:

Central deity: Devotion was often focused on Vitthala (or Vithoba), a form of Vishnu, worshipped at Pandharpur. The Varkari tradition involves pilgrimage to Pandharpur.
Use of regional language: Saints composed hymns (abhangas) in Marathi, making religious ideas accessible to the common people.
Social inclusiveness: Many saints came from diverse social backgrounds, including lower castes and women, and their teachings often challenged caste distinctions.
Emphasis on devotion, simple living, and social service.
Did not strictly adhere to asceticism or renunciation of the world; householders could also follow the path of Bhakti.

Image related to Varkari tradition or a prominent saint of Maharashtra

*(Image shows a photograph related to the Varkari pilgrimage to Pandharpur or a statue/painting of a prominent saint like Tukaram or Jnaneshwar)*

The Bhakti saints of Maharashtra enriched the devotional tradition, used the regional language to spread their message, and contributed to social reform by challenging caste prejudices and promoting a more inclusive form of religious practice.

Attitudes Towards Caste (Bhakti)

One of the significant aspects of the Bhakti movement was the varied attitudes of the Bhakti saints towards the prevailing caste system. While some saints implicitly or explicitly challenged caste distinctions, the impact and approaches differed.

Challenge to Caste Hierarchy:

Many Bhakti saints, including those from lower castes themselves (e.g., Chokhamela, Kabir, Ravidas), strongly criticised the caste system and caste-based discrimination.
They preached that devotion to God was open to everyone, irrespective of their birth or social status.
They promoted equality and fraternity among followers, creating communities where caste distinctions were less rigid.
The inclusive nature of the Sangha (community of followers) of many Bhakti saints, drawing people from diverse jatis, demonstrated a departure from caste-based social norms.
They questioned the authority of Brahmanical texts and rituals that upheld the caste hierarchy.

Varying Degrees of Impact:

While the Bhakti movement promoted egalitarian ideas in the religious sphere, it did not necessarily lead to the complete abolition of the caste system in wider society.
Caste distinctions often continued to exist in social practices, marriage, and daily life, even among followers of Bhakti traditions.
The impact of the movement on challenging caste varied across regions and specific Bhakti traditions.
Some Bhakti traditions were more radical in their rejection of caste than others. For example, the Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka was very explicit in its opposition to caste.

The Bhakti movement provided a platform for challenging caste discrimination and promoting social equality based on devotion. While it did not eradicate the caste system, it significantly influenced social attitudes and contributed to the ongoing critique of caste-based hierarchies in Indian society.

Women Devotees (Bhakti)

The Bhakti movement was notable for the active participation of women as devotees and even as poet-saints. Their contributions enriched the Bhakti tradition and provided alternative avenues for spiritual expression for women in medieval Indian society.

Prominent Women Bhakti Saints:

Andal: A prominent Alvar saint from South India (9th century CE). She expressed her intense devotion to Vishnu through her beautiful hymns in Tamil.
Mirabai: A Rajput princess from Rajasthan (16th century). She was intensely devoted to Lord Krishna and composed numerous popular Bhajans (devotional songs). She defied traditional roles and social restrictions, focusing solely on her devotion.
Akka Mahadevi: A Virashaiva poet-saint from Karnataka (12th century). She renounced worldly ties, including her husband, and expressed her devotion to Shiva through her Vachana poems.
Janabai, Sakhu Bai: Women saints from Maharashtra who composed abhangas in Marathi, expressing their devotion to Vitthala and reflecting on their lives.

Image of a famous woman Bhakti saint (e.g., Mirabai or Andal)

*(Image shows a painting or illustration of a prominent woman Bhakti saint like Mirabai or Andal)*

Significance of Women in Bhakti:

Bhakti provided a pathway for women to express their religiosity and seek spiritual liberation independently of traditional patriarchal structures or intermediaries (like male priests).
Women saints challenged societal norms and restrictions placed upon them, advocating for their right to devotion and spiritual autonomy.
Their compositions in regional languages made Bhakti accessible and relatable to other women and the wider population.
Their inclusion as saints and devotees within Bhakti traditions contributed to a more inclusive religious landscape.

The active presence of women in the Bhakti movement highlights its potential for empowerment and social change, allowing women to play a more visible and influential role in the religious and cultural life of medieval India.

Relations With The State (Bhakti)

The Bhakti movement, while primarily a religious and social phenomenon, also interacted with the political power of the state. Rulers often developed complex relationships with Bhakti saints and traditions, involving patronage, attempts at control, or sometimes conflict.

Patronage and Support:

Rulers often provided patronage to temples associated with Bhakti deities and to the Bhakti saints or their followers.
South Indian dynasties like the Pallavas, Cholas, and Pandyas patronised temples of Shiva and Vishnu, which were central to the Nayanar and Alvar traditions. They made land grants to temples and supported the construction of magnificent temple complexes.
Some rulers saw the popular appeal of Bhakti saints as a way to gain legitimacy and support from the population.
Sufi saints also received patronage from rulers (Delhi Sultans, Mughals), who built dargahs (shrines) and khanqahs (hospices) and provided land grants. Rulers often visited dargahs seeking blessings.

Influence and Control:

The state sometimes sought to integrate religious institutions and leaders into its administrative and social framework.
Rulers might try to influence religious practices or gain control over wealthy temple resources.
The inclusive and sometimes anti-caste messages of Bhakti saints could potentially challenge existing social and political hierarchies, leading to suspicion or attempts at control by the state or dominant social groups.

Conflict:

In some instances, conflict arose between the state and religious groups, especially if the rulers perceived them as a threat to their authority or the established social order.
For example, the Virashaiva movement, with its strong anti-caste stance and rejection of Brahmanical authority, faced opposition from dominant social groups and potentially from the state.

The relationship between Bhakti traditions and the state was dynamic, involving a mix of patronage, mutual benefit, attempts at integration, and sometimes tension or conflict, reflecting the complex interplay of religion and politics in medieval India.

The Virashaiva Tradition In Karnataka

This heading is duplicated, as it was covered under Section I5. Since Section I5 provides a detailed description of the Virashaiva tradition, its founder Basavanna, and its teachings and practices, I will not repeat the information here. Please refer to Section I5 for the details on the Virashaiva tradition.

In summary, the Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka (12th century), led by Basavanna, was a significant reformist movement within the Bhakti tradition that challenged caste, rejected Brahmanical rituals, and promoted egalitarian devotion to Shiva, influencing the social and religious landscape of the region.

The Saints Of Maharashtra

This heading is also duplicated, as it was covered under Section I6. Since Section I6 provides details on the key saints of Maharashtra, their connection to the Varkari tradition, their use of Marathi language, and their social impact, I will not repeat the information here. Please refer to Section I6 for the details on the Saints of Maharashtra.

In summary, the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra (13th-17th centuries) featured saints like Jnaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram, who focused on devotion to Vitthala, composed hymns in Marathi, and contributed to social inclusivity by drawing followers from diverse backgrounds and challenging caste prejudices.